Introduction
Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) are man-made chemicals widely used in various industrial and consumer products for their water- and oil-resistant properties [1]. Despite being produced since the 1940s, these compounds have only gained global attention in the last decade due to their adverse effects on human health. These molecules, often labeled as 'forever chemicals' because of their resistance to natural degradation and ability to bioaccumulate in organisms, have been found in air, surface waters, oceans, soils and even in remote Arctic regions [2]. In addition, elevated concentrations of PFAS have been detected indoors, indicating an important exposure pathway for humans [3].
According to CompTox, a chemical database maintained by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, there are nearly 15 000 synthetic PFAS chemicals. The emergence of new PFAS and the simultaneous release of next-generation PFAS-like compounds pose significant obstacles for environmental scientists and regulators. Keeping pace with new sources, developing dedicated analytical methods, and understanding their toxicological effects is challenging. As a result, the majority of these substances are not yet subject to regulatory monitoring under current environmental laws, especially considering their direct measurement in ambient air.
The low concentration of these compounds complicates their analysis and requires highly sensitive analytical detection methods. Traditional methods employed for gas-phase sampling have predominantly relied on offline analytical methods. These methods involve the use of passive or active air sampling devices that collect samples onto filters and/or sorbents with subsequent laboratory analysis [4]. While essential, these methods face significant limitations in directly addressing the issue at its source. For example, the long collection periods together with the time-intensive nature of the sample
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